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1250: A Letter from the Regional Ruler al-Azraq to the Queen of Aragon (view source)
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[§25] In the broader context of political developments in the western Mediterranean, the first large-scale uprising of the Mudejars in the Kingdom of Valencia under the leadership of al-Azraq can be seen as a regional symptom of larger developments that affected other regions of the southern Iberian Peninsula as well: the first half of the thirteenth century had been marked by massive territorial gains on the part of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, which were pushing into the southern parts of the peninsula at that time. The decades that followed saw repeated revolts by a Muslim population subjected to Christian rule. These uprisings were not confined to the Kingdom of Valencia (1247-1258, 1275-1277), but also shook the Castilian Kingdom of Múrcia (1263-1266). They were a cause for serious concern, especially due to the almost omnipresent rivalry between Castile and Aragon. This rivalry was a fact well known to Muslim leaders like al-Azraq, who frequently tried to play off both great powers against each other to their own advantage.<ref name="ftn38">In Múrcia, the rebel leaders also tried to play the kings of Aragon and Castile off against each other and even sought diplomatic understanding with the Papal Curia. Eventually, however, James I launched a military expedition in support of his son-in-law, Alfonso X, in the course of which the rebellions were put down by force. On these events, see the recent study by Maser, ''Convivencia''.</ref> After the suppression of the Muslim uprisings, the respective Christian monarchs considerably intensified their efforts to consolidate their rule over the subjugated territories, so that, by the end of the century, the balance of power had been clearly established in favour of Christian rule. | [§25] In the broader context of political developments in the western Mediterranean, the first large-scale uprising of the Mudejars in the Kingdom of Valencia under the leadership of al-Azraq can be seen as a regional symptom of larger developments that affected other regions of the southern Iberian Peninsula as well: the first half of the thirteenth century had been marked by massive territorial gains on the part of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, which were pushing into the southern parts of the peninsula at that time. The decades that followed saw repeated revolts by a Muslim population subjected to Christian rule. These uprisings were not confined to the Kingdom of Valencia (1247-1258, 1275-1277), but also shook the Castilian Kingdom of Múrcia (1263-1266). They were a cause for serious concern, especially due to the almost omnipresent rivalry between Castile and Aragon. This rivalry was a fact well known to Muslim leaders like al-Azraq, who frequently tried to play off both great powers against each other to their own advantage.<ref name="ftn38">In Múrcia, the rebel leaders also tried to play the kings of Aragon and Castile off against each other and even sought diplomatic understanding with the Papal Curia. Eventually, however, James I launched a military expedition in support of his son-in-law, Alfonso X, in the course of which the rebellions were put down by force. On these events, see the recent study by Maser, ''Convivencia''.</ref> After the suppression of the Muslim uprisings, the respective Christian monarchs considerably intensified their efforts to consolidate their rule over the subjugated territories, so that, by the end of the century, the balance of power had been clearly established in favour of Christian rule. | ||
[§26] For the Kingdom of Valencia as the youngest realm of the Crown of Aragon, the rebellion of al-Azraq can be considered largely under control from 1250 onwards. Nevertheless, al-Azraq’s opposition continued to challenge the Crown. The stubborn resistance of a petty rebel leader, who had been outmaneuvered militarily but could not be defeated entirely, threatened to become a problem in foreign relations: King James I, who liked to present himself as a successful “conqueror” (Catalan/Aragonese: ''Conqueridor'', Castilian: ''Conquistador'') and champion of Latin Christendom in his relations with the Papacy and the great rulers of Latin Europe, risked losing his credibility if he seemed unable to keep his conquests under control. At a time when the Mongols were emerging as a hitherto unknown and threatening power on the eastern borders of the Euromediterranean, and imposing rulers such as Frederick II (regn. | [§26] For the Kingdom of Valencia as the youngest realm of the Crown of Aragon, the rebellion of al-Azraq can be considered largely under control from 1250 onwards. Nevertheless, al-Azraq’s opposition continued to challenge the Crown. The stubborn resistance of a petty rebel leader, who had been outmaneuvered militarily but could not be defeated entirely, threatened to become a problem in foreign relations: King James I, who liked to present himself as a successful “conqueror” (Catalan/Aragonese: ''Conqueridor'', Castilian: ''Conquistador'') and champion of Latin Christendom in his relations with the Papacy and the great rulers of Latin Europe, risked losing his credibility if he seemed unable to keep his conquests under control. At a time when the Mongols were emerging as a hitherto unknown and threatening power on the eastern borders of the Euromediterranean, and imposing rulers such as Frederick II (regn. 1198-1250) or Louis IX (regn. 1226-1270) maintained intensive diplomatic and military relations with the Islamic sphere, the “international” prestige of the king of Aragon had to be preserved.<ref name="ftn39">On the foreign relations of the Crown of Aragon under James I, see the classic synthesis by Engels, ''König Jakob I.''<nowiki>; Smith</nowiki>'', Jaime I''<nowiki>; Ferrer i Mallol, </nowiki>''Panorama''<nowiki>; and Vela Aulesa, </nowiki>''Jaume I''.</ref> | ||
[§27] The events surrounding the Muslim uprising led by al-Azraq, which gave birth to the letter of 647/1250, thus fell into a period in which Christian rule over large parts of the Iberian south had been established, but not yet stabilised. Here as in other Mediterranean regions affected by European-Christian expansion, Muslims began to oppose a hitherto successful expansionist movement by military and diplomatic means.|6=María del Carmen Barceló Torres (ed.): Documentos árabes de Al-Azrāq (1245-1250), in: ''Saitabi. Revista de la Facultat de Geografia i Història'' 32 (1982), pp. 40-41, URL: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1034238 [recto only]. | [§27] The events surrounding the Muslim uprising led by al-Azraq, which gave birth to the letter of 647/1250, thus fell into a period in which Christian rule over large parts of the Iberian south had been established, but not yet stabilised. Here as in other Mediterranean regions affected by European-Christian expansion, Muslims began to oppose a hitherto successful expansionist movement by military and diplomatic means.|6=María del Carmen Barceló Torres (ed.): Documentos árabes de Al-Azrāq (1245-1250), in: ''Saitabi. Revista de la Facultat de Geografia i Història'' 32 (1982), pp. 40-41, URL: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1034238 [recto only]. | ||