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973: Ibn Ḥawqal on Christian-Muslim Marriages in Sicily: Difference between revisions
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973: Ibn Ḥawqal on Christian-Muslim Marriages in Sicily (view source)
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Aside from the ideological bias and the resulting distortion of Ibn Ḥawqal’s account, it is, therefore, quite conceivable that Muslim Sicily witnessed complex and locally differing forms of social assimilation or “transculturation”, which eschew common categorization in terms of cultural affiliation.<ref name="ftn13">Epstein, Hybridity.</ref> In the context of interfaith marriages, Ibn Ḥawqal branded the male representatives of corresponding practice with the word ''al-mušaʿmiḏūn''. This term requires further contextualization. | Aside from the ideological bias and the resulting distortion of Ibn Ḥawqal’s account, it is, therefore, quite conceivable that Muslim Sicily witnessed complex and locally differing forms of social assimilation or “transculturation”, which eschew common categorization in terms of cultural affiliation.<ref name="ftn13">Epstein, Hybridity.</ref> In the context of interfaith marriages, Ibn Ḥawqal branded the male representatives of corresponding practice with the word ''al-mušaʿmiḏūn''. This term requires further contextualization. | ||
Alex Metcalfe was first to point out that the word ''al-mušaʿmiḏūn'' derives from the Hebrew word ''meshumadim'';<ref name="ftn14">Metcalfe, Wandel, p. 72.</ref> Giuseppe Mandalà supported this statement with further evidence and concluded that the term meant “apostates”.<ref name="ftn15">Mandalà, Minoranze, pp. 107-109.</ref> However, from the perspective of Jewish law (''Halakha'') the matter is more complicated:<ref name="ftn16">See the discussions in Zeitlin, Mumar; Teppler, ''Birkat''; ''Langer, ''Cursing.''</ref> the root ''sh''-''m''-''d'' has Hebrew and Aramaic origins. It can be found in the Tanach (i.e. the Hebrew Bible) in a number of instances, in which | Alex Metcalfe was first to point out that the word ''al-mušaʿmiḏūn'' derives from the Hebrew word ''meshumadim'';<ref name="ftn14">Metcalfe, Wandel, p. 72.</ref> Giuseppe Mandalà supported this statement with further evidence and concluded that the term meant “apostates”.<ref name="ftn15">Mandalà, Minoranze, pp. 107-109.</ref> However, from the perspective of Jewish law (''Halakha'') the matter is more complicated:<ref name="ftn16">See the discussions in Zeitlin, Mumar; Teppler, ''Birkat''; ''Langer, ''Cursing.''</ref> the root ''sh''-''m''-''d'' has Hebrew and Aramaic origins. It can be found in the Tanach (i.e. the Hebrew Bible) in a number of instances, in which God punishes infidels or insurgents with destruction (חשמיד / ''hishmīd'', i.e. “he has destroyed”).<ref name="ftn17">2 Kings 21: 9; Deuteronomy 2: 22; 1 Chronicles 5: 25; the basic meaning of the word is “to spoil/ to perish.”</ref> In the Babylonian Talmud, the term ''meshumad'' (pl. ''meshumadim'') refers to a Jew who transgressed the boundaries of religious law—consciously, under pressure or, sometimes, voluntarily.<ref name="ftn18">Talmud Bavli, Chullin 5a:10, 11, 13, 14; Chullin 5b:1; Avodah Zarah 26b:1-3, Horayot 2a:15; Horayot 11a:12.</ref> As such, the ''meshumadim'' are not necessarily apostates in the sense of “apostasy from the faith”'' ''(''apostasia a fide''), but rather Jews whose religious practice is regarded as deviant or “corrupted,” but who are still deemed to be part of the Jewish community. | ||
There are, however, cases in which derivations of the root ''sh-m-d'' were also used to characterize those Jews, who had indeed defected from Judaism, namely due to external pressure and persecution. Evidence for this can be found in the Tosefta and the Talmud, where e.g. the reign of emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138) is referred to as “The Time of Oppression”, ''sha’at ha-shemad'' in Hebrew.<ref name="ftn19">Langer, ''Cursing'', p. 50; according to Grossberg, ''Heresy'', pp. 120-121, this is, however, not a contemporary designation.</ref> If ''ha-shemad'' is deemed as oppression or persecution, the ''meshumadim'' could be considered as those who gave up Judaism because of repressive political measures.<ref name="ftn20">Teppler, ''Birkat'', p. 67. </ref> In a similar vein, ''shemad'' and ''meshumadim'' can also be found in the writings of Maimonides (d. 601/1204), namely in his “Letter of Repression/Apostasy” (''Iggeret ha''-''shemad''), in which he addresses the Jews living under Almohad rule after 1161''.''<ref name="ftn21">Kraemer, ''Maimonides'', pp. 104-111.</ref> | There are, however, cases in which derivations of the root ''sh-m-d'' were also used to characterize those Jews, who had indeed defected from Judaism, namely due to external pressure and persecution. Evidence for this can be found in the Tosefta and the Talmud, where e.g. the reign of emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138) is referred to as “The Time of Oppression”, ''sha’at ha-shemad'' in Hebrew.<ref name="ftn19">Langer, ''Cursing'', p. 50; according to Grossberg, ''Heresy'', pp. 120-121, this is, however, not a contemporary designation.</ref> If ''ha-shemad'' is deemed as oppression or persecution, the ''meshumadim'' could be considered as those who gave up Judaism because of repressive political measures.<ref name="ftn20">Teppler, ''Birkat'', p. 67. </ref> In a similar vein, ''shemad'' and ''meshumadim'' can also be found in the writings of Maimonides (d. 601/1204), namely in his “Letter of Repression/Apostasy” (''Iggeret ha''-''shemad''), in which he addresses the Jews living under Almohad rule after 1161''.''<ref name="ftn21">Kraemer, ''Maimonides'', pp. 104-111.</ref> | ||